The inescapable finality of death’s grasp has made this eternal danse macabe a point with which mankind has always wrestled and wished to escape. From the old tales of deals with the devil to the concoction of alchemical elixirs man has always wanted a little more time. In every era of man’s history there has always been someone trying to conceive new ways to escape, or at a minimum, extend their mortal stay in this realm.

                What makes death such a universal subject is that it is the great equalizer. No matter what your station in life may be, eventually the grim reaper will come knocking. Our brief journey into mortality during this transitory experience of life forces us, at least on occasion, to contemplate our own demise. Regardless of the source, whether it is oral tradition or lengthy religious manuscripts, art or prose humans have always had a morbid curiosity with the spectacle that is death and what may potentially happen to us when we die.

                Throughout recorded history, from the most ancient of sources, death and ghosts seem to have been a prevalent and integral part of many societies. A great number of these ancient non-Christian cultures were virtually ruled by a theocratic class of priests whose power rivaled, or in some cases exceeded, that of the king. Generally, in this type of socio-religious infrastructure the trend in faith tended to be polytheistic and a bit more inclined to religious and spiritual diversity. This type of religious and social structure allowed the rites of ancestor worship and Spiritism to flourish throughout the ancient world.

                To support these thoughts, we know that from an historical standpoint archaeology has revealed that cultures as old as the ancient Egyptians practiced forms of ancestor worship and Spiritism. This phenomenon was not unique to the ancient Egyptians, however. There were many other societies throughout history from around the globe who participated in these of rites as well. Aside from the Egyptians, cultures such as the Norse, the Mayans, various Asiatic cultures, numerous African tribes, North American Indians and the Aborigines of Australia all practiced ancestor worship and Spiritism in one form or another.

                In many of these cultures there were cults or other religious factions specifically dedicated to the care, preparation, and worship of the dead. Even in the pre-Christian Old Testament portion of the Bible spirits are mentioned and references to the dead are made. One reference, specifically, is found in the Bible book of Deuteronomy, the 18^th chapter, 10^th and 11th verses. It reads in part: “Anyone who… consults a spirit medium or foreteller of events… or anyone who inquires of the dead.” From the latter text we see that even the ancient Semitic cultures of the Middle East acknowledged that there were those in their society who consulted, spoke to, and dealt with the spirits of the dead.   

                Jumping ahead a millennia or so we come across a world renowned tale by a playwright from Stratford-on-Avon, England. William Shakespeare, who wrote “Hamlet”, had without question created one of the most brilliantly and complexly crafted pieces of theatrical work of all time. This masterpiece focuses centrally on the subject of death with, of course, a side order of revenge and betrayal. Throw in the ghost of a murdered Danish king, a dash of insanity, add twist of conspiracy and you have the recipe for a timeless classic tragedy.  Only one problem here though, Bill. Everyone is dead at the end. Not much left here for a sequel.

Above, a French religious text of the 16^th Century depicts the rotten corpses of the dead coming to carry off a priest, a lord, a nobleman and the king. Although allegorical in context, this illustration reinforces the notion that regardless of whom you are, where you are, or what your place in life may be death does not grant exemptions.  

                In modern times there are still some surviving customs that have not been supplanted in the cultures of the people indigenous to certain geographical areas. An excellent example of these momento mori (remember the dead) ceremonies is “Dia de los Muertos” (Day of the Dead) which is celebrated annually on November 1. The festivities of this day are primarily celebrated in Central and South America where, like many ancient indigenous rites from around the world, the ancestral spirits are thought to come back to the land of the living. These spirits must be appeased by the festivities and by the sacrifices of food, drink, and other items left in their honor. If the spirits of the dead are not pleased then misfortune will befall the community in the following year.

                Today, even in cultures that do not dedicate community festivals to commemorate their dead, many still carry out elaborate funerary rites that date back several centuries. These rites include viewings of the dead, lengthy eulogies, elaborate funerary processions, and dining and social time after the burial rites have been performed – all of which are done in honor of the dead and in memoriam of their life.    

                Looking back over several millennia worth of documentation about the event of death, it seems that mankind has always had a need to record images and events related to death. Museums are filled with various antiquities depicting military conquests on battlefields that are littered with the corpses of those slain in battle. Some museums include funerary art, death masks, sarcophagi and other accoutrements of the final rite of passage in their collections. Strangely enough though, most of our modern ideas and imagery about the abstract idea of death comes straight out of the European Dark Ages. The macabre imagery and representations of death in medieval Europe, such as the skeleton, a rotting corpse and the grim reaper have not been superseded in our modern times by any other symbols.

                Even the early classical images of death are collages of symbols which hold specific meanings to both the conscious and subconscious mind. The garb of death, the black mourning robe, was first referenced in the early fifteenth century. The cloak that the grim reaper is so often depicted as wearing is very similar to the robes of the priest or monk who would be officiating during the last rites at the death bed.

                In ancient Greek mythology Chronos, whose name literally means “time,” was the king of the Gods and the father of Zeus. The role of Chronos was a dual one as he was also known as the harvest god Cronus. Because of the duality in the roles that were played out by this deity he was aptly named Father Time due to his close association with the seasons and his paternal role in the Greek pantheon.

                The three Greek words that were originally related to the deity and his stations were: Chronos, meaning “time,” Cronus, the god of harvest and Corone, which means “crow.” From the direct association to this deity it is little wonder that we often see a crow accompanying the grim reaper in his travels. It has also been noted that in most imagery of the grim reaper there is found a clepsydra, or hour-glass, which is another obvious symbol of time and thusly of Chronos. The hourglass is also symbolic in the thought that it represents a finite amount of time for the sand to pass from upper chamber to the lower chamber, reminding us of the brief period of time that we have.  

                As it was previously mentioned, the image of the grim reaper carrying a scythe is another symbolism that is directly derived from the Chronos mythology. The scythe is a symbol that tells us that death reaps the souls of both saints and sinners alike as a peasant would harvest both wheat and chaff in his field before it is taken to the threshing room to be separated. In this regard the grim reaper, much like the Chronos before him, also carries a scythe. Where the scythe of Chronos represented the autumn harvest the scythe of the reaper represents a harvest of souls.  

Death, with his scythe and hourglass sitting atop the globe while a raven flies in mid-heaven.

                As it has already been pointed out, the most popular representations of death have been the skeleton and the rotting corpse. While the purpose of the decomposing body is to frighten, the skeleton has a much more allegorical context. This comes in the form of a universal symbol that is eventually revealed during the process of decomposition. The skeleton has no skin, so there is no racial barrier; it has no genitals so gender connotations are left behind, and it has no material items save for its death shroud which leaves material wealth, rank, and social status out. What we are left with is the most simple and universal symbol of human mortality laid bare.  

                The movement to personify the idea of death was gradual, even though the basic imagery has been roughly the same for centuries. By the onset of the sixteenth century the well-known German painter Hans Holbein der Jüngere (the younger) produced a set of woodcuts. It was from the images found on these woodcuts that the familiar imagery of the robed skeleton was derived as the ultimate symbol of death. Now, placed upon his throne, this enigmatic figure had an identity and universal personification that would be recognized the world over as the representation of the abstract idea of death.

                No matter what form or imagery death may arrive in, our human mortality as a race was most evident during the time period when the pandemic of the Black Plague swept across the European continent.  Spreading from Asia, the Black Plague reached Italy in the spring of 1348 unleashing a rampage of death across Europe the likes of which was unprecedented in all of recorded history. By the time the plague had run its course of roughly three years an estimated twenty five percent (25%) to fifty percent (50%) of Europe's population had fallen victim to the dread pestilence.

                If you can believe it, superstition about cats is what caused the start and spread of the plague. During the 1340s it was believed that cats, not just black cats, but all cats in general were bad luck and the cause of misfortune. How to solve this calamity? Simple, kill the cats. However, with most of the cats in the cities dead, rodents were free of a major natural predator and could now roam and reproduce unchecked. Ships arriving in Italian seaports from Asia carried cargo, and thusly rats. The rats had a cargo of their own: the Oriental Rat Flea. The fleas carried within them bacteria, Yersinia pestis, which was the cause of the plague. From the ports of Italy the plague spread along the trade routes throughout Europe.

                The most lethal disease of the ancient world took three forms: Bubonic, Pneumonic and Septicemic.  The bubonic plague was the most commonly seen form of the Black Death. The term 'bubonic' refers to the characteristic bubo or enlarged lymphatic gland. The disease began the same way in both men and women. Swelling in the groin or under the armpit which eventually grew to the about the size of an egg. In a relatively short span of time, one to seven days, these tumors spread from the groin and armpit areas to various regions on the body. Soon after this the tumors changed in color from red to black or purple. Dark colored spots also appeared on the arms or thighs, which was sign of certain death. Victims of this from of the plague were subject to headaches, nausea, aching joints, fever of 101-105 degrees, vomiting, and a general feeling of illness. The mortality rate of this form of the plague was approximately 30-75%.

                The pneumonic plague was the second most commonly seen form of the Black Death. This variation of the plague infected the lungs and respiratory system instead of the lymphatic glands. Symptoms included violent coughing, shortness of breath and slimy sputum tinged with blood. As the disease progressed, the mucus became free flowing and bright red, filled with blood. It should be noted that the pneumonic plague was transmitted differently than bubonic or septicemic plague. Instead of direct infection through a flea bite, as would be the case with the other two variations, the pneumonic form was transmitted through the mist sprayed from the lungs and mouth of an infected person when they would cough. The bacteria, now airborne, entered the lungs through the mouth or nose of the victim, descended the trachea and attacked the lungs and throat. The symptoms of pneumonic plague took 1-7 days to appear and the mortality rate was 90-95%.

                The septicemic plague was the rarest form of the Black Death. The mortality at the time was close to 100% and even today there is no treatment. Symptoms were a high fever and skin turning deep shades of purple due to disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). The symptoms related to the processes of DIC are severe blood loss and hypovolemia. Internal bleeding from at least 3 unrelated sites was particularly suggestive of DIC. Aside from massive blood loss, gastrointestinal bleeding, liver failure and aortic aneurysms were also common. In this most severe from of the plague victims usually died on the same day that symptoms appeared.

                With the realization of our human mortality we can look back at any given point in the last few millennia and be assured that wherever the shrouded specter of death has gone, ghosts and stories of the returned dead have not been far behind. Whether we look to the resurrection of Lazarus in the Bible, in great tales performed on stage such as Hamlet, or in simple stories spun around the flickering light of a fire, ghosts have always been a central and cross-cultural theme in the mythology, folklore and legends of many world cultures.

                In this nineteenth-century illustration we see a rare depiction of a ghost which is being summoned by Dr. John Dee (1527-1608). Dee was a famous mathematician, philosopher, and astrologer for Queen Elizabeth. In the illustration Dee holds a torch while psychic Edward Kelly consults with the spirit. Note that both Dee and Kelly are protected by a magic circle on the ground that is etched with various arcane symbols.

                Just because ghosts lack a rich history in art does not mean that they have been forgotten. For centuries tales about the spirits of the departed have been whispered from generation to generation, becoming more embellished as time goes on. This rich oral tradition of telling ghost stories is still alive and well today, simply in a different form.

                As oral tradition has turned from creative storytelling to the special effects of the silver screen the paranormal community has witnessed a monumental surge in interest. In one Gallop poll it was noted that belief in the paranormal increased from 27% in 1990 to 46% in 2004. This 19% increase over a 14 year period is due in large part to the availability and visibility that the mass media has placed on the supernatural and paranormal. As this article is being written in February 2006 it is possible to turn on the television any night of the week and find a program whose central theme is psychics, supernatural events, hauntings or other subjects along these lines. This is an apparent signal that paranormal themed movies, books, television shows and even cartoons will continue to be a marketing trend for the next few years or more.